Understanding the Diversity of International Families

Table of Contents

International families come in many forms, each reflecting unique linguistic, cultural, and social dynamics. Understanding the different family types is essential to fostering multilingualism and effective intercultural communication.

Below, I share a short overview of the main types of international families – in no particular order – with examples and references. Please be aware that they can overlap and be combined (find some examples at the end of the post).

1. Endogamous Families

Endogamous families consist of partners from the same linguistic and cultural background, typically living abroad. They prioritize maintaining their heritage language and culture while navigating a foreign environment. For instance, a Romanian family living in Canada may ensure that their children speak Romanian at home while learning English in school.

Endogamous families face the challenge of balancing integration into the host culture while preserving their linguistic root.

2. Exogamous Families

Exogamous families consist of partners from different linguistic, cultural, or national backgrounds (another term is intermarried families). These families often raise children who are exposed to multiple languages and cultural frameworks. For example, a French-German couple raising children in Australia may introduce French, German, and English at home and in the community. Even if both are Australian citizens, their exogamous status highlights their distinct cultural and linguistic heritages. The focus in these families is on linguistic, cultural, or ethnic differences.

Exogamous families enrich their children's linguistic repertoire and cultural understanding, making them adept at navigating diverse environments.

3. Mobile or Transnational Families

Mobile families frequently relocate due to work or lifestyle, often adopting elements of various cultures and languages. For example, a diplomat’s family moving from Kenya to Japan to France may adapt to each local language while maintaining their home language.

Frequent mobility fosters adaptability and multilingualism but can pose challenges for language consistency and cultural identity.

4. Mixed-Nationality Families

These families comprise partners from different nationalities who may share linguistic or cultural similarities. Children often hold multiple citizenships and grow up with an enriched linguistic repertoire. For example, a Swiss-German-German couple raising bilingual children in The Netherlands. In comparison to the exogamous family, in the mixed-nationality family, nationality is the distinguishing factor. Even if both partners speak German as a common language, the mixed-nationality element reflects their national affiliations. The emphasis is here on the differences in citizenship or national identity, which may or may not overlap with linguistic or cultural diversity.

Mixed-nationality families provide a rich cultural and linguistic heritage, shaping global citizens.

5. Multilingual Families

Multilingual families often use more than two languages in their daily lives. Partners may speak different native languages and adopt a third language for communication. For instance, a German-Spanish couple using English as a family lingua franca while raising trilingual children.

Multilingual families exemplify the complexity and beauty of navigating multiple linguistic worlds.

6. Immigrant Families

Immigrant families bring their heritage language and culture to a new country, facing challenges of language maintenance and cultural adaptation. For example, a Portuguese family living in Germany may struggle to balance Portuguese and German at home and in school.

Immigrant families often act as linguistic and cultural bridges between their heritage and host communities.

7. Expatriate Families

Expatriate families temporarily live abroad, often maintaining strong connections to their home country. For instance, a British family living in Singapore might enroll their children in an international school, where they learn Mandarin alongside English.

Expatriate families navigate the interplay between temporary integration and long-term cultural continuity.

8. Refugee Families

Refugee families relocate due to conflict, persecution, or natural disasters. They often face trauma and language adaptation challenges. A Syrian family resettling in Sweden might focus on learning Swedish for integration while retaining Arabic for cultural continuity.

Language becomes a tool for survival and identity reconstruction for refugee families.

9. Heritage Language Families

These families actively preserve their heritage language in a dominant-language environment. For example, a Japanese family in Brazil might ensure their children learn Japanese through community events and supplementary education.

Heritage language families demonstrate resilience in sustaining linguistic traditions across generations.

10. Internationally Adoptive Families

These families adopt children from a different linguistic or cultural background and often make efforts to preserve the child’s heritage language. For instance, a Canadian family adopting a child from China might introduce Mandarin through cultural events.

Adoptive families contribute to a global narrative of cultural preservation and belonging.

11. Third Culture Families

These families raise children in a culture different from their parents' native culture(s), creating a unique "third culture" identity. For example, an Indian-Australian family living in the UAE might integrate Indian, Australian, and Emirati cultural elements.

Third culture families craft hybrid identities that enrich global perspectives.

12. Binational Families

Binational families consist of partners from two different countries. They often live in one partner’s home country or a third country. For example, a Mexican-Japanese couple raising bilingual children in the USA.

Binational families embody the fusion of diverse linguistic and cultural identities.

13. Split or Commuter Families

Split families live apart due to work or education, maintaining relationships across borders through technology. For instance, a Chinese parent working in the USA while the rest of the family stays in China.

Split families innovate ways to maintain linguistic and emotional bonds across distances.

Conclusion

International families encompass a vast array of configurations, each with its own opportunities and challenges. Recognizing these family types helps to address their unique needs and foster their linguistic and cultural diversity. Furthermore, like I mentioned at the beginning, these family "types" can overlap and also be combined.
Here are four examples of such combinations:

Exogamous and Multilingual Family
A Italian-German couple living in the Netherlands communicates in English as their family lingua franca while introducing their children to Italian, German, as well as English, and the local environment’s Dutch.
Mobile and Third Culture Family
A German-Brazilian family relocates frequently due to work, living in countries like Japan and South Africa. Their children grow up blending elements from German, Brazilian, the school culture and language as well as the host countries’ cultures, forming a unique third-culture identity.
Immigrant and Heritage Language Family
A Mexican family in Germany strives to maintain Spanish at home while their children adapt to German at school. They engage with the local German-speaking community to preserve their heritage while navigating immigrant experiences.
Exogamous and Mixed-Nationality Family
A Japanese-German couple, one holding Japanese citizenship and the other German, raising children in the US. They are exogamous because they represent distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, and they are mixed-nationality, because they hold different citizenships.

Key differences among the different types of international families

Family Type	Defining Characteristic	Shared Nationality?	Shared Language?	Cultural Diversity?	Example
Exogamous Families	Partners from different linguistic or cultural backgrounds	Sometimes	Sometimes	Yes	French-speaking Swiss and German-speaking Swiss raising children in Switzerland
Endogamous Families	Partners share the same linguistic and cultural background	Yes	Yes	No	Indian couple living in the USA, raising children in Hindi
Mixed-Nationality Families	Partners from different countries or nationalities	No	Sometimes	Sometimes	Mexican and Japanese couple raising children in Canada
Mobile/Transnational Families	Family relocates frequently, adapting to different languages and cultures	Sometimes	Sometimes	Yes	Diplomat’s family moving from Kenya to Japan to France
Multilingual Families	Family uses three or more languages in daily life	Sometimes	No	Yes	Russian-Spanish couple using English as a lingua franca while raising trilingual children
Immigrant Families	Family migrates to a new country and navigates language maintenance and adaptation	Yes	Sometimes	Yes	Turkish family living in Germany balancing Turkish at home and German at school
Expatriate Families	Family temporarily living abroad while maintaining strong ties to their home country	Yes	Yes	Sometimes	British family living in Singapore enrolling their children in an English-speaking international school
Refugee Families	Family relocates due to conflict or other forced circumstances	Yes	Sometimes	Yes	Syrian family resettling in Sweden learning Swedish while maintaining Arabic
Heritage Language Families	Family actively preserves their heritage language in a dominant-language environment	Yes	Yes	No	Japanese family in Brazil ensuring children learn Japanese through community events
Internationally Adoptive Families	Family adopts children from a different linguistic or cultural background	Sometimes	No	Yes	Canadian family adopting a child from China introducing Mandarin alongside English
Third Culture Families	Children grow up in a culture different from their parents’ native culture(s), forming a unique identity	Sometimes	Sometimes	Yes	Indian-Australian family living in the UAE integrating Indian, Australian, and Emirati cultures
Binational Families	Partners from two different countries	No	Sometimes	Sometimes	Mexican-Japanese couple raising bilingual children in the USA
Split or Commuter Families	Family members live apart across borders for work or education	No	Sometimes	Sometimes	Chinese parent working in the USA while the rest of the family lives in China

Notes:

Shared Nationality: Refers to whether partners hold the same citizenship(s).
Shared Language: Refers to whether the family primarily speaks the same language(s).
Cultural Diversity: Highlights whether the family incorporates distinct cultural backgrounds.

References:
Barron-Hauwaert, S. (2011). Bilingual Siblings: Language Use in Families. Multilingual Matters.

Clyne, M. (2003). Dynamics of Language Contact. Cambridge University Press.

Dewaele, J.-M., & Wei, L. (2012). Multilingualism and Multicompetence. Routledge.

Fail, H., Thompson, J., & Walker, G. (2004). “Belonging, Identity and Third Culture Kids”. Journal of Research in International Education.

Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Harvard University Press.

Lee, S. J. (2003). “Adoption and Identity”. Bilingual Research Journal.

Limacher-Riebold, U. (2025, January 19). Language scenarios for multilingual children growing up abroad. Ute's International Lounge. https://multilingual-families.com/language-scenarios-for-multilingual-children-growing-up-abroad/

Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2001). Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation. University of California Press.

Pollock, D. C., & Van Reken, R. E. & Pollock, M. (2017). Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds. Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

Vertovec, S. (2009). Transnationalism. Routledge.